Elizabeth Brinton: "Embedding sustainability at the core of business"
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Elizabeth Brinton has become a key figure in the energy transition. She shares her vision of an economy where sustainability would be integrated.
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What is Carbon Management?
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Carbon management is a growing field for addressing the contribution businesses have to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Resources provided by trusted organizations such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) imply that strategic carbon management has become essential for organizations seeking to mitigate their environmental impact while maintaining operational efficiency. The approach is helpful for environmental management, because it applies a practical lens to an often challenging problem of global warming.
In fact, The International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that improvements in energy efficiency made in 2019 avoided an increase of around 200 MtCO₂ in global emissions.
Finding the most straightforward, effective strategies for businesses reducing emissions requires measurement, accuracy, a combination of technological and soft skills, and a commitment to becoming part of the solution to climate change.
This article will explore what carbon management is, evidence-based explanations as to why carbon measuring and reporting is important, and how your organization can employ effective carbon management strategies.
What is carbon management?
Carbon management is an organized approach to gain the strategic advantages of CO₂ emissions reductions.
According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), effective carbon management, including systematic measurement and monitoring – can help to avoid and reduce greenhouse gas emissions across an organization's value chain and business operations.
As a whole, carbon management helps organizations stay focused on achieving their targets to reduce CO₂ emissions and their use of fossil fuels.
With mandatory reporting requirements in the UK and EU, and stakeholder pressure for businesses to set goals to reduce emissions and implement carbon management helps businesses, measure, track, and manage emissions in an organized way.
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions with carbon management
The Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) reported at the end of 2023 that over 4,000 companies around the world have committed to emissions reduction targets aligned with climate science, demonstrating the growing desire for businesses to utilize structured carbon management systems.
Carbon management combines practical, cost-effective approaches to reducing annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in ways that enhance environmental performance and create long-term business value. In fact, a study published explains how seeking to employ effective carbon capture processes will allow for reductions in both energy consumption and operational costs.
“ The fight to contain climate change should be our priority, and this requires a commitment from everyone. – (Marta Cañada, Chief Technology Officer of Abora Solar). ”
Improve finances under carbon management
Carbon management is useful for identifying useful carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions reduction strategies for cutting back the annual emissions business report to stakeholders in their CSR reports. McKinsey & Company has previously shared research illustrating that companies with robust carbon management frameworks are bound to receive better returns on sustainability investments compared to organizations stick to "traditional" financial methods.
Various carbon management technologies
There are a wide range of strategies employed in carbon management: energy efficiency, low-carbon fuel substitution, renewable energy certificates, life cycle analysis, and the use of new technologies like carbon capture, otherwise known as direct air capture – are all strategies that can help businesses lower their reported CO₂ emissions.
The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has identified these approaches as critical components to the overall global incentive to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
However, not all companies can afford carbon capture and storage systems – meaning that some business leaders may need to re-evaluate their industrial processes and use critical thinking to employ effective carbon management strategies.
Case Study: Carbon Management with Unilever
Unilever demonstrates how process optimization and supply chain reconfiguration reduced their carbon footprint – such as how they have announced plans to climate fossil fuels in their cleaning products by 2030.
Unilever's "Clean Future" program will include sourcing 100% of the carbon derived from fossil fuels in its cleaning and laundry product formulas with renewable or recycled carbon – in addition to their already existing success in reducing plastic usage by 75% and transportation emissions by 83%.
Additionally, Unilever's Climate Transition Action Plan outlines targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions across its value chain by 2030, including:
- Reducing scope 3 emissions (energy & industrial) by 42%
- Reducing scope 3 emissions (forest, land, and agricultural emissions) by 30.3%
- Reducing scope 1 and 2 emissions by 100% by 2030 in conjunction with a baseline approved by the SBTi
Overall, science and research are seeking new ideas for decarbonization technologies are being made all of the time to improve upon sustainable development, but the good news is – emissions reductions can effectively be achieved through the implementation of one or more of these broad categories.
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Why is carbon management important?
Carbon management does not just look at the problem of carbon emissions added to the atmosphere each year, it supports the development of technologies and approaches to address the legacy emissions and hard to abate industrial emissions.
According to research published in Nature Climate Change, addressing current and previous emissions is crucial to meet our global climate targets. This reveals that even if we completely reduce new generation of CO₂ emissions to zero, carbon management should still support the removal of the build-up of historic CO₂ emissions and usage of fossil fuels.
The Role of Carbon Management in Achieving Sustainability
Within organizations, carbon management goes beyond technology to include policies, training, and techniques that reduce CO2 emissions strategically. With a managerial approach to the problem of CO₂ emissions, organizations can avoid a disorderly and confusing process to alter their systems. A study by the Harvard Business Review explained how companies with comprehensive sustainability strategies often reap the benefits of improved financial performance and risk management.
In other words, technology development can help make a low carbon future a reality. The International Energy Agency's Net Zero by 2050 roadmap outlines how carbon management is an imperative tool to help us achieve global climate objectives.
Luckily, there are multiple pathways of improvement for all organizations regardless of size or sector. In the event of CO₂ emissions reductions, carbon management identifies the pathways of least resistance. For example, Microsoft's carbon negative initiative demonstrate how systematic carbon management helped them to reduce their carbon emissions by from 11.6 million metric tons to 10.9 million metric tons – resulting in a substantial 6% decrease in emissions.
Key Benefits of Effective Carbon Management:
Here are a few evidence-based reasons why carbon management can prove indispensable for businesses:
- Regulatory Compliance: Research from the Urban Land Institute explains how proactive carbon management allow organizations to comply with future regulations and ultimately reduce the risk of legal fines.
- Cost Reduction: According to McKinsey's Climate Risk and Response report, effective carbon management can help companies to achieve substantial cost savings in addition to mitigating climate-related risks.
- Innovation Catalyst: The World Economic Forum has documented how carbon management can ignite innovation and allow businesses to gain a competitive edge against their competitors while also supporting climate change adaptation.
- Stakeholder Relations: A 2023 Deloitte survey found that 90% of Chief Experience Officers (CxO) believe they can achieve economic growth while workings towards climate and emission reduction goals. Furthermore, CxO's around the world are placing a higher importance on sustainability investments – with an 85% increase in sustainable investments in a single year. This reveals how investors now consider carbon management capabilities in their assessment of corporate value.
- Risk Mitigation: An analysis from S&P Global explains how companies with robust climate risk and carbon management are bound to not only avoid climate-related disruptions, but improve their long-term financial performance in comparison to their competitors.
- Future-Proofing: The Transition Pathway Initiative reports that advanced carbon management is directly linked to superior long-term financial performance and can help to support a low-carbon economy.
The table below will depict the importance of carbon management:
Importance of Carbon Management
| Reason | Description |
|---|---|
| Helps Engage Stakeholders | Effective carbon management demonstrates a company's commitment to environmental sustainability, which can engage and motivate employees, customers, and investors. It shows that the company is proactive in addressing climate change, which can enhance its reputation and stakeholder trust. |
| Attract New Customers and Investors | Many consumers and investors are becoming more environmentally conscious and prefer to support companies that prioritise sustainability. By implementing carbon management practices, businesses can attract a new segment of eco-conscious customers and investors, thereby expanding their market reach and financial opportunities. |
| Avoid Legal Fines from Lack of Compliance | Regulations on carbon emissions are becoming stricter globally. Proper carbon management ensures compliance with these regulations, helping companies avoid legal fines and penalties. Staying ahead of regulatory requirements can also provide a competitive advantage. |
| Long-Term and Sustainable Business Growth | Managing carbon emissions can lead to cost savings through improved energy efficiency and reduced waste. These savings can be reinvested into the business for further growth. Additionally, sustainable practices can open up new business opportunities and markets that are increasingly favoring eco-friendly products and services. |
Manage your company’s carbon emissions: calculate your carbon footprint
Climate change will fundamentally shape the course of business over the next few decades, so it is important to stay alert regarding the use of natural gas, GHG emissions, energy costs, and climate change overall.
According to the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD), companies face both transition risks and physical risks from climate change that will impact their financial performance. This is depicted in a 2023 survey conducted by by ZEW (Centre for European Economic Research) indicates that institutional investors place an emphasis on climate risk disclosure, highlighting the importance of sustainability information in investment decisions.
Carbon credentials demonstrate an organization’s legitimate approach to a globally acknowledged problem: carbon emissions are too high, and science, resources, research, and new ideas need to be sought out for the sake of the climate and reducing harmful greenhouse gases and methane emissions.
“ Rapid emissions reduction is required to restore Earth's energy balance and avoid ocean heat uptake that would practically guarantee irreversible effects. Continuation of high fossil fuel emissions, given current knowledge of the consequences, would be an act of extraordinary witting intergenerational injustice. – (Dr. James Hansen, former NASA scientist and Director of the Climate Science, Awareness and Solutions Program at Columbia University's Earth Institute). ”
Manage Emissions with the SBTi & GHG Protocol
Every carbon management system starts with collecting the data on CO₂ emissions, following protocols established by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, which is recognized by 92% of Fortune 500 companies as the gold standard for emissions accounting. Consider this data a starting point to slice down the numbers towards zero and work towards net reduction.
Furthermore, the Science Based Targets initiative emphasizes the importance of setting clear and accurate emissions baselines to effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions in line with the Paris Agreement goals.
Carbon Measuring and Reporting
The problem is not just that businesses have not set net zero targets, the issue is many have not even calculated their baseline of GHG emissions. The CO₂ emissions baseline is the starting point which enables carbon management in the first place.
Research published in Nature Climate Change reveals that regardless of increasing regulatory pressure, many companies still struggle to utilize comprehensive carbon accounting, especially for scope 3 emissions which are more difficult to measure and reduce.
However, with a baseline, your organization can effectively measure progress relative to the starting point. This helps you scope out actions that could immediately minimize your CO2 footprint and allow for cost savings, or even reduce costs – while also improving efficiency.
The baseline also helps organizations develop strategies with a timeline, budget, and KPIs – like any management problem in an organization. Your carbon dashboard is a communication tool for benchmarking performance, highlighting progress, and building trust.
Professor Michael Porter of Harvard Business School has discussed the importance of implementing ESG criteria into business strategies. For example, in research published Mark Kramer, they break down the concept of "shared value," and how businesses could gain long-term value by addressing ESG issues.
What is a carbon footprint?
“Carbon footprint” is a popular sustainability buzzword, but some people may not fully understand its meaning.
The phrase refers to the sum of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous dioxide, methane, and HFCs) which our carbon intensive activities and other projects produce typically expressed in CO₂-equivalent units (CO₂e) to standardize the global warming potential of different gases, as defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Carbon footprints can be calculated for individuals, businesses, cities, or even countries. On average, people in the US have a carbon footprint of 16 tons of CO₂ emissions per year. This is much higher than the global annual average of 4 tons. According to research from the Global Carbon Project, this disparity can have a varied impact across different regions – such as with energy consumption patterns, transportation infrastructure, and consumption habits.
Even this average, however, is still too high to limit global emissions to less than 2℃ by 2100. The average global footprint should drop to 2 tons or less per year by 2050. As demonstrated in "Vision 2050" by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, there are several pathways for businesses to contribute to a more sustainable future – but this can only happen if we excel the push for systematic changes across various sectors.
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The Role of Businesses in Carbon Reduction
Businesses have play a central role in helping to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, because a large amount of emissions occur during the production and distribution of goods and services, which individuals cannot change.
Here are two evidence-based examples:
- Business Energy Consumption – The World Resources Institute estimates that the energy sector collectively account for approximately 72% of global greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the critical role of corporate action in climate mitigation efforts – as business activities play a significant role in these excessive global emissions.
- Product Development – Businesses are also responsible for the way products are designed. By designing products and services which effectively encourage emissions reducing behaviors, businesses can manage carbon to cut back on emissions inefficiencies.
“ We don’t have a choice but to do this. This is imperative for our survival... if you think about starting a business today, designing a business around a circular economy philosophy, ultimately it’s going to give you better returns in the long run. – (Christopher Davis, International Director of Corporate Responsibility and Campaigns for The Body Shop, featured the documentary Closing the Loop). ”
How can you calculate the carbon footprint of your company?
You may have seen carbon footprint calculators online which quickly help you audit your lifestyle for its CO₂ emissions impact. However, these calculators only scratch the surface. Greenly supports its clients with a range of services that are useful for carbon measurement and management.
The Greenhouse Gas Protocol, developed by the World Resources Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable Development, provides the most widely used international accounting framework for quantifying corporate emissions.
Breakdown of Scope Emissions
These assess the total level of CO₂ emissions per year for a range of business activities. A carbon footprint measurement converts the activities of your organization into a tangible set of facts and figures.
According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), utilizing ISO 14064-1 can allow companies access to a more detailed overview for both direct and indirect emissions sources, providing organizations with a complete inventory that serves as the foundation for strategic carbon management.
These activities may fall within different Scopes. The 3 main Scopes worth addressing include:
- Scope 1: Direct emissions from owned or controlled sources(i.e., various business-owned operations)
- Scope 2: Indirect emissions from generating purchased electricity, steam, heating and cooling(i.e., off-site energy used in operations)
- Scope 3: All other indirect emissions that occur in a company's value chain (i.e., upstream supply-chain and downstream consumer value chain emission)
Most emissions fall under scope 3, and reporting recommendations are increasingly concerned with these emissions – as scope 3 can account for a whopping 70% of a company's overall emissions. Assessing the carbon footprint of Scope 3 emissions often benefits from the support of a partnering organization familiar with the latest measurement techniques.
In fact, research published in Environmental Science & Technology letters explains the now pivotal role of digital monitoring, reporting, and verification technologies (MRV) to help ensure accurate reporting and emissions reductions.
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Life cycle analysis
Unlike a carbon footprint, which assesses organizational activities for a given period of time, life cycle analysis looks at how CO2 emissions and other environmental impacts occur across the useful life of a product or service.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards to govern life cycle assessment methodologies, as both of these standards help to provide a structured framework for corporations to follow worldwide.
Let’s use a product as an example for the emissions created over a product's entire existance:
- Extraction & Production: Before a product becomes useful to a customer, it starts out as nothing more than a bunch of raw materials. This requires energy and an assembly line to produce. Next, products should be shipped to a warehouse, which requires gas, fuel and other resources.
- Usage Phase: After the item is sold, a consumer will use the item for a period of time. If the item requires energy or fuel to use, it will produce emissions in the hands of the consumer. This is an example of when carbon management technologies cannot reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and carbon management is now the responsibility of the consumer. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation explained in a report "Completing the Picture: How the Circular Economy Tackles Climate Change" how the usage phase of a product is the most alarming – as it accounts for a substantial portion of a product's lifetime emission. This reiterates the need for improved energy efficiency and usage patterns in reducing overall emissions.
- Disposal: After this, the item will either get resold, recycled, or disposed of. At that point, additional carbon emissions may be produced in either one of these stages. The Environmental Protection Agency has previously explained how a product's end-of-life not only contributes to a product's carbon footprint – but can even be hazardous if the product contains carbon rare metals or hazardous materials.
Therefore, a life cycle analysis produces a flow chart to illustrate how a product is made, transported, used, and eventually disposed. Along each step of the flow chart there are related CO₂ emissions to measure and assess.
5 tips for an efficient carbon management
1. Certify your use of Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources provide low-carbon opportunities for energy consumption. Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, power plants, and a range of other opportunities. Most of these energy sources produce no CO₂ emissions once they are operational, proving that power generation doesn't need to create excessive carbon emissions.
When a company reports its energy and fuel mix in a carbon footprint assessment, each type of energy is associated with a different level of CO₂ emissions. By sourcing renewable energy, a business can report zero emissions in this category and improve their carbon management.
So how should a company verify its use of renewable energy? The answer varies depending on which country or region an organization operates in. Here are a few different opportunities:
- RECs - In the United States, companies can purchase Renewable Energy Credits to match their use of energy, even if they don’t operate in an area with enough publicly available renewable energy. One renewable energy credit equals 1 MWh of electricity. These credits are tracked through systems like the Western Renewable Energy Generation Information System (WREGIS) to ensure verification and preventing double-counting.
- REGOs – In the UK, Renewable Energy Guarantees of Origin verifies a company has used energy from 100% renewable sources. REGOs are issued by Ofgem, the UK's energy regulator, providing assurance that renewable energy claims are legitimate and traceable.
Aside from these certificates, companies can also join one of several initiatives to demonstrate their support for expanding renewable energy sources.
- RE100 is an initiative for companies who wish to commit to sourcing 100% of their electricity from renewable sources.Currently, the initiative includes 418 companies which source about 45% of their electricity needs from renewable sources. As of 2023, 76 of these companies have reported 100% renewable energy sourcing.
- 24/7 Carbon Free Energy - The UN created its 24/7 Carbon Free Energy Compact to encourage governments, investors, and utilities to supply decarbonized energy 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This initiative supports expanding full access to clean energy sources, and unlike traditional renewable energy purchasing – 24/7 CFE aims to match renewable energy supply with actual consumption on an hourly basis.
2. Cut back on travel-based emissions
The COVID-19 pandemic caused many workplaces to expand their digital and remote working systems out of necessity. Lockdown meant that people couldn't easily travel for conferences or work in shared office spaces.
As a result, a wide range of digital opportunities became more widely used: Zoom, Skype, Slack, and Clubhouse offered networking opportunities both within organizations and externally.
From a carbon footprint perspective, digital working opportunities significantly cut down on the number of work commutes and air miles spent on travel for work purposes. Even after the world opened back up again, most conferences and events still offer reduced-rate entry for digital attendees.
For hard-to-reduce air miles, companies should be aware that every passenger seat type has a different carbon footprint. According to the UK Defra Carbon Factors, first-class emissions 0.60kg CO₂e, business class emissions are 0.43kg CO₂e and economy class emissions are just 0.15kg CO₂e.
Employee commutes aren’t the only thing to consider, as studies reveal that companies with fleets of vehicles can reduce their CO₂ emissions by switching to electric vehicles, hybrid, or alternative fuel-source vehicles.
It’s important to think beyond road-based vehicles, too. This includes fleets of lawn mowers, utility vehicles, forklifts, and other equipment used in the operations of a business. Remember, off-road equipment can also account for a significant portion of operational emissions for certain industries such as construction and agriculture.
The driving habits of your employees can also make a considerable difference in terms of the overall CO₂ footprint of a company. To address this, training on low-emissions driving styles, ride sharing incentives, and route optimization can all improve a company’s transportation-based emissions.
Finally, promoting alternatives to internal combustion engine vehicles such as trains, bikes, and metro all offer carbon management techniques worth exploring – as transportation is repeatedly proven to be one of the main sources of emissions contributing to climate change.
3. Optimize systems for energy efficiency
There are literally hundreds of ways businesses can optimize their energy efficiency, and in addition to helping the climate crisis – it can help your company to reduce operational costs and save money. Until you undergo a carbon footprint assessment, these opportunities might not seem obvious.
Retrofits, technology swaps, smart technologies, and operational and behavior changes can all improve energy efficiency metrics. This is why carbon management benefits from innovation and thinking outside the box.
Here are a few ideas to employ energy efficiency:
- LED Lighting is an energy efficiency miracle that not nearly enough businesses have tapped into, as LED lighting can reduce energy consumption up to 90% according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Changing window glazing, motion sensors, smart timers, dimming lights, and even improving access to natural light can also cut down on electricity costs.
- Insulation is crucial for optimizing your building's airflow and adapting to seasonal changes, helping to utilize of natural resources while reducing energy consumption in unused areas. Consider replacing energy-intensive appliances and equipment with energy-efficient alternatives.
- Smart technologies and thermostats can help you track, monitor, and operate your buildings more efficiently.
4. Take your heating and cooling to the next level
Heating and cooling contribute significant amounts of CO2 emissions. One of the most impactful green building strategies you can make is switching from a natural gas heater or boiler heater to an energy efficient heat pump.
However, this will require an upfront cost. Researching incentives from your local government may help you finance the shift.
The Energy Saving Trust provides comprehensive information on:
- Government grants and incentives for energy efficiency and renewable energy
- Funding available across England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland
- Technical guidance for residential and commercial properties
- Case studies and best practices to employ energy efficiency
Operational adjustments can go a long way to cut down on the excess. Smart thermostats can adjust the indoor temperature according to the outside temperature automatically and shift temperature during day and nighttime.
To reduce cooling costs, inventive approaches such as:
- Planting trees near buildings
- Installing shading
- Increasing natural airflow
- Painting a roof with reflective paint can all cut down on indoor temperatures in summer
Data storage centers often use excess cooling to keep the servers from overheating. However, improving the accuracy of the temperature in the center can cut down on unnecessary cooling costs. This could mean raising or lowering the ambient temperature a few degrees, since the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) provides guidance on indoor temperature ranges to ensure thermal comfort in workplaces, such as:
- Winter: 21°C to 23°C
- Summer: 22°C to 24°C
5. Reduce, reuse, recycle, and more
Every item in your office has a life cycle which could prematurely send materials to the landfill. Procurement strategies have proven effective in reducing the amount of unnecessary waste created.
This can include purchasing recycled or used goods, or leasing office furniture. Circular business models that lease equipment and offer repair and maintenance services can extend the useful lifespan of items.
All of the small supplies that are quickly used up in an office such as food, drinks, paper, or other supplies can all be optimized for low-waste alternatives. Composting, food donations, and storing files electronically can all minimize waste from these supplies.
Electronics contribute significant waste each year, so ensuring that your company prioritizes recycling e-waste and repair services is another way to minimize waste. The Department for Environmental Food estimates that the total amount of waste from UK households was 22.1 million tonnes in 2019.
Every item that is sent to the landfill adds to your carbon footprint. Remember, The UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) carbon metric tool allows organizations to determine their greenhouse gas emissions reductions depending on different waste management practices, helping to prioritize waste reduction strategies with the greatest carbon impact.
What about Greenly?
Greenly helps businesses conduct carbon footprint assessments and develop carbon management strategies to draw down emissions.
Click here to learn more about Greenly and how we can help you reduce your carbon footprint.
Don't wait any longer, take the first step towards reducing your carbon footprint by requesting a free and non-binding demo with one of our experts today and finding the solution that best fits your business needs.
Sources
EPA https://www.epa.gov/climateleadership/ghg-reduction-programs-strategies and https://www.epa.gov/recycle/electronics-donation-and-recycling
IEA https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-efficiency-2020/energy-efficiency-in-2019
World Resources Institute https://www.wri.org/initiatives/greenhouse-gas-protocol
SBTi https://sciencebasedtargets.org/about-us
Science Direct https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652623040453
McKinsey https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/the-triple-play-growth-profit-and-sustainability
Unilever https://www.unilever.com/news/news-search/2021/clean-future-one-year-on-how-innovation-is-driving-growth/
Nature https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02041-1 and https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/carbon-footprint-calculator/
U.S. Chamber of Commerce https://www.uschamber.com/environment/carbon-negative-water-positive-zero-waste-inside-microsofts-new-10-year-plan
Urban Land Institute https://europe.uli.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Accelerating-Accountability-the-Case-for-Carbon-Pricing.pdf
Deloitte https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ec/Documents/about-deloitte/Deloitte_2024_CxO_Sustainability_Report_C.pdf
S&P Global https://www.spglobal.com/_assets/documents/ratings/research/101595538.pdf
Transition Pathway Initiative https://www.transitionpathwayinitiative.org/publications/uploads/2024-tpi-state-of-transition-report-2024
ZEW https://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/policybrief/en/pb04-25.pdf
NASA https://www.giss.nasa.gov/pubs/abs/ha08510t.html
GHG Protocol https://ghgprotocol.org/companies-and-organizations
Research Gate https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6616248_Strategy_and_Society_The_Link_Between_Competitive_Advantage_and_Corporate_Social_Responsibility
UCAR https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-solutions/carbon-footprint#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20States%2C%20each%20person%20produces%20about%2016%20tons%20of%20carbon%20dioxide%20each%20year
Earth System Science Data https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/17/965/2025/
World Economic Forum https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/09/scope-3-emissions-are-key-to-decarbonization-but-what-are-they-and-how-do-we-tackle-them/
ACS Publications https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.4c01048
Ellen Macarthur Foundation https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/completing-the-picture
Oxford https://www.smithschool.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2022-01/Oxford-Offsetting-Principles-2020.pdf
WREGIS https://www.wecc.org/program-areas/wregis
Climate Group Re100 https://www.there100.org/re100-members
CN Traveler https://www.cntraveler.com/story/how-to-purchase-carbon-offsets-for-your-next-flight
Carbone 4 https://www.carbone4.com/files/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Executive-summary-PV-Carbone-4.pdf
U.S. Department of Energy https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/lighting-choices-save-you-money
Defra https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-environment-food-rural-affairs
ASHRAE https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/technical%20resources/bookstore/emergence-and-expansion-of-liquid-cooling-in-mainstream-data-centers_wp.pdf
Energy Saving Trust https://energysavingtrust.org.uk/
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