What is the SEC and How is it Related to the Environment?
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How does the SEC, otherwise known as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, help the United States regulate environmental policies?
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The Carbon Cost of Streaming
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Important: The information provided in this article, including calculations and estimations, is based on our research and data analysis, and only aims to contribute to discussions around the carbon footprint of streaming platforms. These estimations are derived from the best available data and should be viewed as contributory insights rather than definitive facts.
Of course, these numbers are constantly evolving and rely on various assumptions. The internet infrastructure is always changing - new energy efficiencies, evolving streaming habits, and shifts in data transmission networks all impact real-world emissions. This means that figures today may be out of date tomorrow, but our analysis provides a useful snapshot of the scale and impact of digital streaming emissions based on the most recent available data.
The environmental impact of streaming
“ Streaming platforms have reshaped how we consume entertainment and information, offering instant access to vast content libraries from anywhere in the world. Services like Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, Disney+, Youtube, Spotify, and even Pornhub dominate global internet traffic, with billions of hours streamed each year. While this shift offers convenience and accessibility, it comes with a significant environmental cost that is often overlooked. ”
Behind every streamed video or playlist lies a complex digital infrastructure. Data centers store the content, content delivery networks (CDNs) transfer it across the globe, and end-user devices play it back - each stage requiring energy that contributes to global carbon emissions. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector, which includes streaming, now accounts for approximately 1.9% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with video streaming representing a major share of that footprint.
The environmental impact of streaming depends on several factors, including video quality, streaming duration, and device type. Higher resolutions like 4K significantly increase energy demand compared to standard definition. The device matters too; a smart TV typically consumes more energy during playback than a smartphone. However, data transmission and storage often account for the bulk of emissions, making the entire lifecycle of streaming critical to analyze.
Understanding carbon footprints in streaming
The carbon footprint of digital streaming refers to the total greenhouse gas emissions generated throughout the process of delivering online content from its source to the viewer. Though streaming feels intangible, it relies on a vast, energy-intensive infrastructure operating behind the scenes.
At the core of streaming emissions is the electricity required to power the entire data flow chain - from the servers where content is stored to the devices playing it. Each stage in this process consumes energy, contributing to carbon emissions, particularly when powered by fossil-fuel-based electricity grids.
The primary contributors to streaming emissions include:
Data centers:
- Data centers are massive facilities housing servers where streaming content is stored and processed before being distributed.
- Though many large platforms, such as Netflix and YouTube, utilize energy-efficient data centers and renewable energy commitments, they still represent a significant portion of emissions due to the scale of global content storage and streaming demand.
Content delivery networks (CDNs):
- CDNs help reduce data travel distances by caching content closer to the user. This network of geographically distributed servers speeds up data delivery while lowering the energy required for long-distance data transmission.
- While CDNs improve efficiency, they still consume energy, especially in regions with carbon-intensive grids.
Transmission networks:
- Internet infrastructure, including fiber optic cables, routers, and switching stations, transmits data between data centers, CDNs, and end-user devices.
- While the energy per gigabyte of data transfer has decreased due to technological advancements, the overall data volume has surged, keeping emissions significant.
End-user devices:
- The device used to stream content (eg. smart TVs, laptops, smartphones) often accounts for the largest share of emissions in the streaming lifecycle.
- Larger screens and higher video resolutions (like 4K) require more energy, with smart TVs being more energy-intensive than smaller devices like smartphones or tablets.
Why streaming’s carbon footprint matters: Even though the per-stream emissions may seem small, the scale of global streaming usage makes the impact significant. According to a study by Reviews, the average American spends 3 hours 49 minutes per day using streaming services. Globally this translates into billions of hours streamed each month, and as platforms increase the availability of higher resolutions and autoplay features, the associated energy consumption continues to grow. Understanding these contributors helps both platforms and viewers make informed choices to reduce their environmental impact.
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Platform-specific analysis
Streaming has become a part of everyday life, with platforms like Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Disney+ offering endless content at our fingertips. However not all streaming services have the same environmental impact. Differences in platform design, streaming quality, and how content is stored and delivered can lead to varying levels of energy consumption and emissions.
In this section, we’ll break down the carbon footprint of the world’s three largest video streaming platforms, looking at how they deliver content, the energy demand across their infrastructure, and whether they’re making progress toward sustainability. Exploring these details will help clarify where the biggest emissions come from and where there’s still work to be done.
Netflix
Netflix has set ambitious climate targets to reduce its environmental footprint, particularly in response to the rising carbon impact of digital streaming. As outlined in its 2023 Environmental, Social & Governance (ESG) Report, the company’s sustainability strategy is centered on emissions reduction, clean energy adoption, and value chain decarbonization.
Key climate commitments
Emissions reduction:
- Netflix aims to cut its emissions by 50% by 2030 compared to 2019 levels.
- This includes absolute reductions in emissions from its operations and productions through efficiency improvements and clean energy transitions.
Renewable energy and clean technology:
- Since 2022, Netflix has matched 100% of its global electricity consumption with renewable energy credits.
- The company is focusing on clean mobile power solutions in production to replace diesel generators.
Scope 3 emissions & value chain decarbonization:
- Recognizing that Scope 3 emissions (value chain emissions) make up 94% of its carbon footprint, Netflix is working with suppliers and partners to drive decarbonization in content production and cloud infrastructure.
- The company has committed to reducing Scope 3 emissions intensity by 55% per million USD of value added by 2030.
Carbon matching & offsetting:
- Beyond 2030, Netflix will continue reducing emissions in line with the latest climate science while matching any remaining emissions with verified carbon credits.
- In 2023, the company matched 843,107 metric tons of CO₂e through carbon credit retirements and invested in nature-based climate solutions and methane destruction projects.
Cloud efficiency & content delivery:
- Netflix’s Open Connect content delivery network helps reduce data transmission energy use by localizing content storage.
- The company collaborates with Amazon Web Services (AWS), which aims to reach 100% renewable energy by 2025, ensuring more sustainable cloud computing.
Tracking and verifying emissions
Netflix calculates its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annually in line with the Greenhouse Gas Protocol, the leading global framework for carbon accounting. To ensure transparency and accuracy, these emissions undergo third-party verification by Ernst & Young LLP (EY).
Despite Netflix’s efforts to track and reduce its emissions, the company’s total carbon footprint in 2023, based on location-based accounting, was 896,871 metric tons of CO₂e. Location-based emissions reflect the actual carbon intensity of the electricity grids Netflix operates within, rather than accounting for market-based renewable energy purchases.
Netflix categorizes its emissions as follows:
- Scope 1 emissions (direct emissions from Netflix’s own operations): 25,790 metric tons of CO₂e
- Scope 2 emissions (indirect emissions from purchased electricity, location-based): 30,303 metric tons CO₂e
- Scope 3 emissions (value chain emissions, including content production, supply chain, and cloud computing): 840,778 metric tons of CO₂e
Given that Scope 3 emissions account for almost 94% of Netflix’s total footprint, the biggest drivers of the company’s emissions are corporate operations and content production, with streaming itself contributing a much smaller share. The company’s emissions can be further broken down as follows:
- Corporate emissions (headquarters, offices, business travel, and cloud services): 547,092 metric tons CO₂e (61%)
- Production emissions (film, series, and gaming content production): 313,905 metric tons CO₂e (35%)
- Streaming emissions (data transmission and infrastructure): 44,844 metric tons CO₂e (5%)
However, one major category of emissions falls outside of Netflix’s formal carbon accounting - the emissions generated by internet transmission and end-user devices. These emissions, driven by the electricity required to power routers, smart TVs, and mobile networks, are not included in Netflix’s reported footprint but represent the largest share of streaming’s overall environmental impact.
This highlights the challenge of reducing streaming emissions - not just through corporate sustainability efforts, but through broader improvements in digital infrastructure, device efficiency, and electricity decarbonization.
Bridging Netflix’s sustainability goals with streaming’s carbon footprint
While data centers and content delivery networks (CDNs) contribute to streaming emissions, the majority of emissions come from end-user devices rather than the infrastructure powering Netflix’s platform. According to Netflix’s 2023 Environmental, Social & Governance Report, these emissions are broken down as follows:
Device manufacturers account for 89% of streaming-related emissions.
- Screens (46%): The biggest single contributor, as larger screens and higher resolutions (like 4K) demand significantly more power.
- Home terminals & routers (38%): These devices, which enable internet connectivity, are always running - even when streaming is inactive.
- TV peripherals (5%): Includes gaming consoles, streaming sticks, and other connected devices.
Internet service providers (ISPs) contribute 10% of emissions.
- Core and access networks: This includes fiber optic cables, mobile networks (4G/5G), and fixed broadband services that transmit data between Netflix’s servers and users.
- Fixed networks are more energy-efficient than mobile streaming, as mobile data is significantly more carbon-intensive.
Data centers, including content delivery networks (CDNs), make up just 1% of emissions.
- Netflix’s Open Connect system optimizes content storage, further minimizing the energy footprint of its data centers.
Disney+
As part of its broader corporate sustainability strategy, The Walt Disney Company has set ambitious environmental targets to reduce emissions across its operations, including its streaming service, Disney+. The company’s 2030 Environmental Goals outline ambitious targets for emissions reduction, clean energy procurement, and value chain decarbonization. While the report covers the entire company - including parks, cruise lines, and media production - Disney+ plays a role in its overall carbon footprint.
Key climate commitments
Emissions reduction
- Disney aims to reduce absolute Scope 1 and 2 emissions by 46.2% by 2030, using a 2019 baseline.
- Net zero emissions for direct operations by 2030, including offices, data centers, and corporate facilities.
- Scope 3 emissions will be reduced through both absolute reductions and supplier engagement, with a 27.5% reduction target for key categories such as purchased goods, business travel, and distribution.
Renewable energy and clean technology
- Disney has committed to purchasing or producing 100% zero-carbon electricity for all direct operations by 2030.
- The company prioritizes on-site renewable energy generation and Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) where feasible.
Scope 3 emissions & value chain decarbonization
- Recognizing that Scope 3 emissions constitute the largest share of its footprint, Disney is working with suppliers and content production partners to drive decarbonisation efforts.
- By 2027, Disney aims for 20% of its suppliers (measured by emissions) to have science-based emissions reduction targets.
Carbon offsetting & nature-based solutions
- Disney invests in natural climate solutions to mitigate residual emissions, including forest conservation and biodiversity protection.
- Internal carbon pricing is applied to different Disney divisions to incentivize emissions reductions across business units.
Disney’s carbon footprint
Disney’s total location-based carbon footprint in 2023 was 9.24 million metric tons CO₂e, with the following breakdown:
- Scope 1 emissions (direct operations): 993,347 metric tons CO₂e
- Scope 2 emissions (purchased electricity, location-based): 782,066 metric tons CO₂e
- Scope 3 emissions (value chain, including content production, supply chain, and streaming infrastructure): 10,637,943 metric tons CO₂e (for the fiscal year 2022, as Disney reports Scope 3 data on a one-year lag).
Scope 3 emissions account for the vast majority of Disney’s total carbon footprint (86%), reflecting its high emissions from content production, supply chain activities, and digital media distribution (including Disney+).
Amazon Prime Video
As part of its broader corporate sustainability strategy, Amazon has set ambitious environmental targets to reduce emissions across its operations, including its streaming service, Prime Video. The company’s sustainability goals, which can be found in its most recent sustainability report, focus on emissions reduction, clean energy adoption, and value chain decarbonization. While Amazon’s environmental commitments cover its e-commerce, logistics, data centers, and cloud computing services, Prime Video plays a role in its overall carbon footprint.
Key climate commitments
Emissions reduction
- Amazon has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2040, as part of The Climate Pledge, ten years ahead of the Paris Agreement target. ❗️ Note: Greenly’s position is that no company can truly achieve net zero, as residual emissions will always remain - making deep reductions and systemic decarbonization more critical than offsetting.
- In 2023, Amazon’s absolute carbon emissions decreased by 3%, including reductions in electricity consumption and supply chain emissions.
- Scope 3 emissions are being reduced through absolute reductions and supplier engagement, prioritizing lower-emission content production and digital distribution.
Renewable energy and clean technology
- Amazon achieved its goal of matching 100% of the electricity consumed by its global operations with renewable energy in 2023 - seven years ahead of schedule. ❗️However, this does not mean all Amazon facilities and data centers are directly powered by renewables at all times; rather, the company balances its consumption by purchasing renewable energy credits (RECs) and entering power purchase agreements (PPAs) that support renewable generation.
- Amazon has invested in wind and solar capacity to power operations, including data centers that host Prime Video.
- The company prioritizes on-site renewable energy and Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) to ensure its infrastructure is powered by clean energy.
Scope 3 emissions
- According to Amazon’s 2023 Sustainability Report, Scope 3 emissions accounted for 75% of its total carbon footprint in 2023, primarily driven by content production, supply chain, and data center operations supporting services like Prime Video.
Amazon’s carbon footprint (2023)
Amazon’s total carbon footprint in 2023 was 68.82 million metric tons CO₂e, with the following breakdown:
- Scope 1 emissions (direct operations): 14.27 million metric tons CO₂e
- Scope 2 emissions (purchased electricity, market-based): 2.79 million metric tons CO₂e
- Scope 3 emissions (value chain, including content production, supply chain, and streaming infrastructure): 51.76 million metric tons CO₂e
Scope 3 emissions represent the majority of Amazon’s total footprint (75%), reflecting its large-scale operations, extensive supply chain, and digital media services, including Prime Video.
Note that Amazon calculates its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions annually in line with the Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Amazon’s climate data undergoes third-party assurance to validate emissions tracking and reductions.
Impact on streaming emissions
Amazon Prime Video, like other streaming services, has an environmental impact primarily through its data centers, content delivery networks, and energy consumption from user devices. While Amazon Web Services (AWS) is transitioning to 100% renewable energy, emissions still arise from the broader digital infrastructure supporting Prime Video.
Bridging Amazon’s sustainability goals with Prime Video’s carbon footprint
While Amazon has ambitious sustainability targets, streaming emissions extend beyond the company’s direct footprint, as the largest share of emissions comes from end-user devices and internet transmission.
Prime Video streaming emissions drivers:
- Data centers & cloud services (AWS): Prime Video relies on AWS, which aims for 100% renewable energy by 2025.
- Content delivery networks (CDNs): Amazon’s global infrastructure optimizes data transmission efficiency, reducing energy consumption.
- User device energy consumption: The majority of streaming emissions come from TVs, laptops, tablets, and smartphones used by consumers.
Amazon’s challenge lies in reducing the broader environmental impact of digital streaming - beyond corporate efforts, device efficiency, and internet infrastructure improvements are key to lowering emissions.
How much energy does streaming use?
A white paper by the Carbon Trust estimates that streaming one hour of video generates approximately 55g CO₂e. This is roughly equivalent to:
- Microwaving four bags of popcorn
- Boiling an electric kettle three times
Note: this estimate is based on UK electricity grid emissions, meaning that actual emissions vary depending on the carbon intensity of the electricity used in different regions. Countries with coal-heavy grids will have significantly higher emissions per stream than those relying on renewables.
The carbon footprint of Netflix
At the end of 2024, Netflix reported 301.63 million memberships globally (each often representing multiple viewers). According to Netflix’s H1 2024 engagement report, users worldwide streamed a staggering 94 billion hours of content over the year.
Using this data, we can calculate:
- The average Netflix membership streamed approximately 312 hours of content in 2024.
- Each membership was responsible for around 17 kg of CO2e emissions from streaming alone (based on the 55g CO2e per hour estimate).
- Total global Netflix streaming emissions amounted to approximately 5.17 million metric tons of CO2e in 2024.
To put this into context:
The emissions from one Netflix membership’s annual streaming (17.2 kg CO₂e) are equivalent to:
- Driving approximately 101 km (63 miles) in an average petrol car.
The total emissions from all Netflix streaming in 2024 (5.17 million metric tons CO₂e) are comparable to:
The carbon footprint of Disney+
At the end of 2024, Disney+ reported 122.7 million Core paid subscribers, with each user streaming an average of 19.3 hours per month.
Using this data, we can calculate:
- The average Disney+ membership streamed approximately 232 hours of content in 2024.
- Each membership was responsible for around 12.8 kg CO₂e emissions from streaming alone (based on the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate).
- Total global Disney+ streaming emissions amounted to approximately 2.9 million metric tons of CO₂e in 2024
To put this into context:
The emissions from one Disney membership’s annual streaming (12.8 kg CO₂e) are equivalent to:
- Driving approximately 75 km (47 miles) in an average petrol car.
The total emissions from all Disney+ streaming in 2024 (2.9 million metric tons CO₂e) are comparable to:
- Driving 17 billion km (10.5 billion miles) in a petrol car - the equivalent of over 425,000 trips around the Earth.
- 4.69 million one-way flights from Paris to New York.
The annual carbon footprint of approximately 290,000 people in the UK.
The carbon footprint of Amazon Prime Video
Since Amazon does not publicly disclose total global streaming hours, we used a Statista dataset comparing daily viewing time between Netflix and Amazon Prime Video in the UK (2021) to estimate total hours.
- UK users watched Amazon Prime Video for an average of 22.7 minutes per day, compared to 43.5 minutes per day on Netflix.
- This suggests Amazon Prime Video users watch 52.2% as much content as Netflix users.
- Applying this ratio to Netflix’s global streaming hours (94 billion hours in 2024), we estimate that Amazon Prime Video users streamed approximately 49.1 billion hours globally in 2024.
Multiple sources suggest that Amazon Prime had around 200 million members in 2024. Using this estimate, we can calculate:
- The average Amazon Prime Video membership streamed approximately 246 hours of content in 2024.
- Each membership was responsible for around 13.5 kg CO₂2e emissions from streaming alone (based on the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate).
- Total global Amazon Prime Video streaming emissions amounted to approximately 2.7 million metric tons of CO₂e in 2024.
To put this into context:
The emissions from one Amazon Prime membership’s annual streaming (13.5 kg CO₂e) are equivalent to:
- Driving approximately 79 km (49 miles) in an average petrol car.
The total emissions from all Amazon Prime Video streaming in 2024 (2.7 million metric tons CO₂e) are comparable to:
| Netflix | Amazon Prime Video | Disney+ | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Estimated Global Hours Streamed (billion) | 94 | 49.1 | 65.52 |
| Average Hours per Membership | 312 | 246 | 232 |
| CO₂e per Membership (kg) | 17.2 | 13.5 | 12.8 |
| Total CO₂e Emissions (million metric tons) | 5.17 | 2.7 | 2.9 |
| Equivalent Driving Distance (billion km) | 30 | 16 | 17 |
| Earth Circumferences | 759,000 | 400,000 | 425,000 |
| Equivalent Flights (Paris–NYC, million) | 8.36 | 4.37 | 4.69 |
| Equivalent UK Citizens' Annual Emissions | 517,000 | 270,000 | 290,000 |
Total streaming emissions: how do they compare on a global scale?
While the emissions from a single hour of streaming may seem small, the sheer scale of global streaming consumption makes its carbon footprint significant. When we total the estimated streaming emissions from Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Disney+, we find that these three platforms alone were responsible for approximately 10.77 million metric tons of CO₂e in 2024.
To put this into perspective:
- This is equivalent to 3.81% of France’s total annual emissions, which stood at 282.96 million metric tons of CO₂e in 2022 according to the IEA.
- It accounts for 4.96% of Spain’s total emissions (217 million metric tons CO₂e in 2022).
- It makes up 8.86% of the Netherlands’ total emissions (121.49 million metric tons CO₂e in 2022).
Beyond national comparisons, these emissions are also striking when considered through real-world equivalents:
- 17.4 million one-way flights from Paris to New York - enough for nearly the entire population of the Netherlands to take a transatlantic flight.
- The same carbon footprint as 1.08 million people in the UK over an entire year - equivalent to the combined populations of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen.
Only a fraction of the global picture
While Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Disney+ are three of the most popular streaming platforms, they represent only a fraction of global streaming activity. There are an estimated 1.8 billion streaming subscriptions worldwide, meaning the emissions from these three platforms account for only 36.3% of total streaming emissions.
Extrapolating from this, if the emissions intensity of streaming is similar across other platforms, the total emissions from all streaming services combined could be as high as 29.7 million metric tons of CO₂e annually.
To put this into perspective:
- Global streaming emissions are equivalent to 10.5% of France’s total annual emissions, 13.7% of Spain’s annual emissions, and 24.4% of the Netherlands’ emissions (2022).
- This is comparable to 48.1 million one-way flights from Paris to New York.
- It matches the entire annual carbon footprint of nearly 3 million UK citizens - about the size of Greater Manchester.
“ With the increasing shift to video-on-demand, live streaming, and high-resolution content (4K, 8K), the emissions from streaming services are likely to continue growing. Tackling this challenge requires not just individual company action but a broader industry-wide effort to improve efficiency, shift towards low-carbon energy sources, and create sustainable digital infrastructure. ”
A note on how the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate was calculated
The Carbon Trust’s estimate of 55g CO₂e per hour of streaming is based on the operational electricity use of key infrastructure components. It does not include emissions from content creation or device manufacturing. The study accounts for:
- Data centers: Video storage and processing.
- Content delivery networks (CDNs): Optimised video distribution.
- Network transmission: Energy use in fiber, mobile, and broadband networks.
- Home routers: Power consumption from WiFi modems.
- End-user devices: TVs, laptops, smartphones, and peripherals (e.g., set-top boxes).
Key assumptions
- Based on European grid electricity emissions (varies by country).
- Assumes a mix of devices, with TVs consuming the most energy.
- Accounts for 2020 network efficiency improvements.
- End-user devices drive the majority of emissions, not data transmission.
Which platforms does this apply to?
- Focuses on on-demand video streaming (Netflix, Amazon Prime, Disney+, BBC iPlayer).
- Does not explicitly include YouTube or social media video streaming (TikTok, Instagram).
- Music streaming (Spotify, Apple Music) is not covered but likely has lower emissions due to reduced data volume compared to video streaming.
How do grid emissions impact the carbon footprint of streaming?
The geographical location of video streaming consumption has a critical influence on the carbon footprint of an hour of streaming. This variability stems from country-specific electrical grid emission factors, which determine the carbon intensity of the electricity used to power data centers, networks, and end-user devices.
For this study, a European average emissions factor was used, but even within Europe, there are significant differences in carbon intensity depending on the energy mix of each country. As illustrated in the study’s findings:
- Germany has the highest carbon intensity at 76gCO₂e per hour of streaming, reflecting its continued reliance on coal and fossil fuels.
- Sweden has the lowest at just 3gCO₂e per hour, due to its near-total reliance on hydropower and nuclear energy.
- France has a low emissions factor of 10g CO₂e per hour, primarily due to its reliance on nuclear power, which has a lower carbon intensity.
- The UK falls in between, with 48g CO₂e per hour, reflecting its energy mix, which includes renewables and natural gas.
- The EU average is estimated at 56gCO₂e per hour, accounting for the diverse energy sources used across member states.
These differences in carbon intensity highlight the importance of national energy policies in shaping the environmental impact of streaming.
How does this compare to the US?
Streaming emissions in the U.S. are likely to be even higher than in Europe, as the US grid has an average emissions factor of 367.4 gCO₂e/kWh - higher than Germany’s, which is already the most carbon-intensive in this European dataset. This suggests that an hour of streaming in the US will have a greater carbon footprint than the European average, especially in regions where fossil fuels dominate the power mix.
These findings emphasize the importance of transitioning to cleaner energy sources, as decarbonization efforts in electricity grids have a direct impact on reducing the footprint of digital services like streaming. Countries with low-carbon grids, such as Sweden and France, significantly reduce streaming-related emissions, while those dependent on coal and gas, like Germany and parts of the US. experience much higher emissions per hour of streaming.
The carbon footprint of streaming YouTube
he Carbon Trust’s study focuses on on-demand video streaming platforms like Netflix, Amazon Prime, Disney+, and BBC iPlayer, but does not explicitly reference YouTube in its methodology or results. While YouTube is also a major video streaming platform, its content structure, viewing habits, and data transmission patterns differ significantly from traditional on-demand services.
Since YouTube operates differently from subscription-based video platforms, its energy consumption and emissions profile are likely to vary. Some key differences that impact its carbon footprint include:
- Data transmission per hour: YouTube's average resolution is often lower than premium video services like Netflix, which defaults to high-definition (HD) or 4K streaming. This suggests lower energy use per hour on average.
- Device usage trends: Contrary to the common assumption that YouTube is primarily watched on mobile devices while on the go, 75% of adults report watching it at home. Since Netflix and other on-demand platforms are more commonly viewed on TVs - which consume more power - this suggests that YouTube viewing on mobile devices at home, likely over WiFi, results in lower emissions. The key exception is when users rely on mobile networks (4G, 5G) instead of WiFi, as mobile data has significantly higher energy consumption, offsetting some of these potential energy savings.
- Average video length and autoplay effects: Unlike the structured format of on-demand platforms, YouTube features shorter videos and continuous autoplay, which changes viewing behavior and data load patterns.
However, because YouTube is a free platform, it has a much larger global user base than paid streaming services. This means that even if its per-user emissions are lower, its overall impact may be substantial due to sheer scale.
How does YouTube’s streaming volume compare?
YouTube is the most widely used video streaming platform in the world, with viewers globally streaming over 1 billion hours of content daily. This scale far exceeds individual on-demand platforms.
Applying the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate used for other video streaming platforms, we can approximate the total emissions from YouTube streaming. With 365 billion hours of video watched annually, even a relatively small per-hour emissions factor accumulates to a substantial total footprint when scaled across YouTube’s vast user base.
However, as previously mentioned, YouTube’s emissions per hour of streaming may be lower than Netflix and other on-demand platforms due to differences in viewing behavior and default video quality. A large share of YouTube’s viewership takes place on mobile devices and laptops, which generally consume less energy than TVs - the primary device for Netflix and other high-definition streaming services. Additionally, while platforms like Netflix default to high resolutions such as 1080p or 4K, YouTube content is often viewed in lower resolutions (eg. 720p, 480p, or even lower on mobile), further reducing data transfer and energy consumption.
Despite these differences, using the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate provides a reasonable approximation of YouTube’s impact, allowing for a consistent comparison across streaming platforms. Multiplying this estimate across YouTube’s global streaming volume results in annual streaming emissions of approximately 20.08 million metric tons of CO₂e.
To put this into context, this is equivalent to:
- Driving 73.4 billion miles (118 billion km) in an average petrol car.
- Approximately 32.5 million one-way transatlantic flights from Paris to New York.
- The annual emissions of approximately 2 million UK residents.
This figure underscores the impact of YouTube’s sheer scale - the platform’s massive reach and continuous content delivery make it a significant contributor to internet-related emissions.
The carbon footprint of Pornhub streaming
While YouTube is the most widely used video streaming platform in the world, Pornhub is the second-largest streaming website by traffic and the eighth most-visited website globally, ranking ahead of Amazon (13th) and Netflix (17th). Given its massive user base, it is worth considering the carbon impact of Pornhub streaming in the context of digital entertainment emissions.
Like YouTube, Pornhub differs from traditional on-demand platforms like Netflix, Amazon Prime, and Disney+ in several key ways:
- Device usage: The majority of Pornhub traffic (90.5% in 2024) comes from mobile devices, while only 7.9% comes from desktops and laptops, meaning it is rarely watched on energy-intensive TVs.
- Video quality: While Netflix defaults to HD or 4K streaming, Pornhub content is typically streamed at lower resolutions, reducing data transmission energy use.
- Shorter viewing times: Unlike the hours-long viewing sessions common on Netflix, the average visit to Pornhub lasts 9 minutes and 40 seconds, significantly lowering the total time spent streaming per session.
These factors suggest that Pornhub's per-hour emissions may be lower than those of on-demand streaming platforms like Netflix. However, for indicative purposes, we apply the same 55g CO₂e per hour estimate used in studies on streaming emissions to provide a rough approximation of Pornhub’s impact.
How does Pornhub’s streaming volume compare?
With 5.5 billion visits per month, Pornhub sees an estimated 66 billion visits annually. Given the average session length of 9 minutes and 40 seconds, this equates to approximately 10.63 billion hours of video streamed per year.
Applying the 55g CO₂e per hour estimate, we calculate that Pornhub’s annual streaming emissions amount to approximately 585,000 metric tons of CO₂e.
To put this into context, this is equivalent to:
- Driving 2.14 billion miles (3.44 billion km) in an average petrol car.
- Approximately 946,000 one-way transatlantic flights from Paris to New York.
- The annual emissions of approximately 58,500 UK residents.
What does this mean for digital streaming emissions?
This reinforces the broader trend that even lower-energy digital services when used at a massive scale, generate considerable emissions - highlighting the need for more sustainable streaming solutions across all types of online content.
The carbon footprint of music streaming
While video streaming platforms like Netflix and YouTube dominate discussions on digital carbon footprints, music streaming also contributes to global emissions. Unlike video, music files are smaller in size, meaning data transmission per hour is lower. However, music streaming tends to be continuous, with millions of users leaving playlists running for hours at a time - meaning its cumulative impact is still significant.
Why music streaming has a lower carbon footprint than video streaming
Music streaming is less carbon-intensive than video streaming for several key reasons:
- Lower data transfer per hour: Music files require significantly less bandwidth than high-resolution video.
- More efficient playback devices: Music is often streamed on phones and laptops, which use less energy than TVs.
- No video processing: Streaming platforms like Netflix require additional computing power for video encoding and playback, increasing energy demand.
Despite these advantages, music streaming is not carbon-neutral. The infrastructure behind it - data centers, network transmission, and device power consumption - still has a substantial environmental cost.
Estimating the carbon footprint of Spotify streaming
To estimate the carbon footprint of Spotify’s streaming activity, we used the most recent data that includes user device electricity consumption. Spotify’s 2023 emissions report - the latest available - no longer accounts for these emissions, meaning its reported footprint underestimates the true impact of streaming.
Since the last report to include user device electricity use was in 2021, we use 2021 emissions as a baseline and scale them up to reflect Spotify’s larger user base in 2023. This approach ensures a more accurate estimate of Spotify’s actual streaming emissions.
Using 2021 emissions as a baseline
Since Spotify’s 2023 emissions report removed user device electricity consumption from its calculations, relying on 2023 data alone would significantly underestimate the true carbon footprint of streaming. Instead, we scale up the 2021 estimate to reflect Spotify’s increased user base in 2023, allowing for a more accurate assessment of actual emissions.
In 2021, Spotify reported total emissions of 490 million kg CO₂e. However, not all of this was linked to streaming.
A breakdown of Spotify’s Scope 3 emissions (which make up 99% of its total emissions) shows that end-use emissions (including user device electricity consumption) accounted for 23% of the total footprint. This indicates that user streaming was a significant contributor.
Based on this, Spotify’s total emissions from streaming in 2021 were approximately 112 million kg CO₂e.
However, since Spotify’s user base has grown significantly, using the 2021 figure alone would underestimate current emissions.
Adjusting for 2024 user numbers
Spotify’s total number of users has increased from 406 million in 2021 to 640 million in 2024, a growth of nearly 58%.
If we assume that average listening behavior has remained stable, then total emissions from streaming would have increased proportionally with the growth in user numbers. By applying this user growth factor to the 2021 streaming emissions estimate, we approximate Spotify’s total streaming-related emissions in 2024 as 176.55 million kg CO₂e.
This estimate accounts for the increase in the number of listeners while keeping per-user emissions constant, reflecting a reasonable assumption in the absence of newer data on streaming energy efficiency or shifts in listening habits.
Based on this, the average Spotify user in 2024 was responsible for approximately 276g CO₂e per year. While this is significantly lower than per-user emissions from video streaming services, the global scale of music streaming means its total footprint remains substantial.
Estimating emissions per hour of streaming
To further break this down, we estimate emissions per hour of music played, which provides a more granular perspective on Spotify’s streaming impact.
The most recent data on total global Spotify streaming hours comes from 2021, when users streamed 107.9 billion hours. To understand the average listening time per user, we divide total listening hours by the number of users in 2021 (406 million). In 2021, the average Spotify user streamed approximately 266 hours of music per year.
Since listening habits tend to remain stable over time, we assume that the average per-user listening hours in 2024 are similar to 2021. Applying this estimate to Spotify’s larger 2024 user base (640 million users), we estimate that total global Spotify streaming hours in 2024 were approximately 170 billion hours.
Because Spotify no longer reports detailed emissions data for streaming, we rely on this approximation to estimate emissions per hour of music played. Assuming the emissions-to-streaming ratio remained consistent, we estimate that Spotify streaming in both 2021 and 2024 generated approximately 1.05g CO₂e per hour. This is based on 113 million kg CO₂e / 107.9 billion hours in 2021 and 176 million kg CO₂e / 170 billion hours in 2024. While this approach provides a reasonable estimate, actual 2024 emissions may vary depending on changes in energy efficiency, streaming infrastructure, and user behavior.
Spotify emissions
Since music streaming is far less carbon-intensive than video streaming, its per-user emissions remain relatively low. However, given its massive global reach, the total footprint is still significant. Importantly, Spotify users only represent a portion of all music streamers. With a 31.7% market share, Spotify is the largest platform, but its emissions are just a fraction of the total impact of global music streaming. Additionally, paid music streaming accounts for only 23% of all music streaming, meaning free-tier and other listening methods further add to the overall footprint.
This highlights the broader environmental impact of digital entertainment - while video streaming is more energy-intensive per hour, music streaming’s continuous and widespread use contributes meaningfully to emissions on a global scale
Limitations of our methodology
Note that while our calculations provide a reasonable estimate of Spotify’s streaming emissions for 2024, there are several assumptions and limitations to acknowledge:
- Baseline data: We used 2021 emissions data as a baseline because it includes user device electricity consumption, which is excluded in Spotify's 2023 report. This means our estimate may not fully capture any energy efficiency improvements or infrastructure changes that have occurred since 2021.
- Growth assumption: We assumed that average listening behavior has remained stable over time. While this allows us to scale emissions based on user growth from 406 million in 2021 to 640 million in 2024, it does not account for potential changes in streaming frequency or duration per user.
- User device energy use: Our estimate assumes that user device electricity consumption from streaming is similar to what was reported in 2021. If device efficiency has improved or if users are streaming on different devices, actual emissions could be different.
- Energy grid variability: Our calculation does not account for regional differences in electricity grid emissions. Since the carbon intensity of electricity varies globally, emissions could be higher or lower depending on where users are streaming.
- Technological advancements: Any improvements in Spotify's data centers, content delivery networks (CDNs), or streaming protocols since 2021 are not reflected in this estimate, potentially leading to either an overestimation or underestimation of emissions.
Despite these limitations, this estimate offers a valuable perspective on the scale of music streaming’s carbon footprint and provides insights into how it compares to other forms of digital entertainment.
The environmental impact of digital streaming
The carbon footprint of streaming - whether music or video - adds up significantly on a global scale. While video streaming is more energy-intensive per hour, music streaming’s widespread and continuous use means its overall emissions remain substantial.
A look at the total streaming hours and emissions across platforms reveals the scale of digital entertainment’s environmental impact:
| Netflix (2024) | Disney+ (2024) | Amazon Prime Video (2024) | YouTube (2024) | Pornhub (2024) | Spotify (2024) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total streaming hours (billion) | 94 | 5.3 | 49.1 (estimated) | 365 | 10.63 | 170 |
| Total emissions from streaming (million metric tons CO₂e) | 5.17 | 2.9 | 2.7 | 20.08 | 0.585 | 0.17655 |
| Emissions per membership/user (kg CO₂e per year) | 17 | 12.8 | 13.5 | - | - | 0.276 |
| Equivalent to (million one-way flights Paris–NYC) | 8.36 | 4.69 | 4.37 | 32.5 | 0.946 | 0.288 |
Key observations
- The scale of streaming matters: Even though per-user emissions for video and music streaming vary, the sheer number of users and hours streamed drives total emissions.
- Video streaming is far more carbon-intensive per user: Platforms like Netflix, Disney+, and Amazon Prime Video have much higher per-user emissions than Spotify due to the energy demands of video data transmission, processing, and device power consumption.
Music streaming’s continuous nature makes its impact significant: While Spotify’s per-user emissions are much lower, its total emissions still add up on a global scale, especially when considering that Spotify is just one of many music streaming services.
How can individuals reduce their streaming emissions?
While digital streaming is an integral part of modern life, small changes in user behavior can help reduce its carbon footprint:
Lower streaming quality where possible
- Streaming in 4K significantly increases data transfer emissions. Opting for HD (1080p) or even 720p - especially on mobile devices where the difference is barely noticeable - can reduce energy consumption.
Download content instead of streaming repeatedly
- Replaying the same song or video? Downloading it once instead of streaming it multiple times reduces emissions from repeated data transfers.
Use WiFi instead of mobile data
- Mobile networks (4G, 5G) are far more energy-intensive than WiFi. Streaming over WiFi or downloading content for offline use lowers emissions.
Choose greener platforms
- Some streaming services are making efforts to power their operations with renewable energy. Opting for platforms that invest in low-carbon infrastructure can help reduce overall emissions.
Be mindful of autoplay
- Platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and Spotify have autoplay features that keep content running indefinitely. Turning autoplay off can prevent unnecessary streaming when you're not actively watching or listening.
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